Introduction
Born in 1588, during the defeat of the Spanish Armada.
Studied at University of Oxford from 1603 to 1608.
Worked as a tutor for William Cavendish and interacted with notable philosophers like Descartes and Henry Boyle.
Notable Works
Early works include The Elements of Law (1630), De Cive (1642), and Leviathan (1651), which were foundational to his political theory.
Wrote a translation of Thucydides’ History of the Peloponnesian War in 1628.
Published Behemoth posthumously, a work on the English Civil War.
Political Philosophy
Advocated for absolute sovereignty and believed in the necessity of a strong, centralized government.
Argued that moral goodness and liberty are tied to individual freedom, marking a shift from classical and medieval views where virtue was central.
Hobbes sought to apply scientific methods to politics, drawing inspiration from geometry and mathematics.
Leviathan became his most famous work, presenting the state as a powerful artificial being formed to provide security.
His Legacy
Hobbes made a sharp break from traditional political thought, emphasizing liberty and individual freedom as central to modern politics.
His views led to friction with Royalists, Parliamentarians, and the religious establishment. Despite this, his work heavily influenced the development of modern political philosophy.
Hobbes' Philosophy and Method
Philosophical Approach:
Hobbes' method is referred to as methodological individualism or scientific materialism, which means he begins his philosophy with the individual and views human beings as material entities driven by motion.
Hobbes introduced materialism to philosophy, influenced by the scientific advancements of the 17th century. This materialistic view led him to reject Descartes’ dualism (the separation of mind and body). For Hobbes, mind and matter are the same, and both are part of the physical world governed by the same laws of nature.
Matter in motion is a central concept in Hobbes' philosophy. He argues that everything in the universe, including humans, is made of matter, and all matter is in continuous motion. Once in motion, things remain in motion unless acted upon by an outside force.
Hobbes believed that human behavior is also governed by these same principles of motion, as human beings are material entities. This leads to the view that human actions are the result of motions within the body, stimulated by external objects.
Theory of Motion:
Hobbes distinguishes between two types of motion in human beings:
Vital motions: These are involuntary actions such as the circulation of blood or the beating of the heart, which keep the body alive.
Hobbes argues that humans are constantly in motion, driven by desires. Desires are the primary motivation for human actions. The pursuit of desires leads to further desires, creating an endless cycle of striving for satisfaction. This cycle, Hobbes argues, continues until death, as there is no ultimate end or cessation of desire.
For Hobbes, reason is a tool used by human beings to achieve their desires. It is not an independent faculty, but rather a slave to desire. Reason does not guide people toward moral good but towards fulfilling their personal needs and desires.
Human Nature:
Hobbes offers a pessimistic view of human nature, describing humans as selfish and driven by self-interest. He argues that humans are in constant pursuit of their desires, which leads to conflict and competition.
According to Hobbes, human beings are characterized by a perpetual desire for power. Once one desire is satisfied, it leads to the formation of another desire, creating an endless cycle of wanting. This pursuit of power and desire causes constant dissatisfaction and restlessness.
Hobbes describes human beings as equal in terms of physical and mental faculties. While individuals may appear different in their talents or abilities, in the grand scheme, they are equal because everyone has the same basic needs and desires.
Because of this equality, competition arises naturally, as people’s desires often clash with those of others. This leads to rivalry, mutual distrust, and physical conflict, as individuals vie for limited resources and self-preservation.
State of Nature:
The state of nature is a hypothetical condition in which there is no sovereign authority or government. In this state, human beings live according to their natural desires, without any higher moral or legal framework.
According to Hobbes, in the state of nature, there are no concepts of rights, justice, or laws. People act solely in their self-interest, and the absence of a governing force leads to anarchy and chaos.
In this state, there is no industry, no cultivation of the earth, no trade, and no social development, because there is no guarantee of personal safety or security. People cannot trust each other, so there is no cooperation or long-term planning.
Hobbes identifies three primary causes of conflict in the state of nature:
Competition
Distrust
Desire for Glory
This results in a condition of war—a "war of all against all"—in which every individual is in conflict with every other individual, and life becomes "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short".
The constant fear of violent death and the insecurity of survival lead to a mutual fear of each other, where everyone is concerned with self-preservation.
Laws of Nature:
Despite the chaotic nature of the state of nature, Hobbes believes that humans still have a basic sense of reason, which he refers to as the laws of nature. These laws are grounded in self-preservation and guide individuals to avoid harm and seek peace.
According to Hobbes, reason teaches humans that in order to preserve themselves, they must:
Seek peace whenever possible.
Give up some freedoms and agree to mutual contracts (social contract) to ensure security and peace.
Perform promises made and honor agreements (laws of nature).
Hobbes lists 19 laws of nature in his work Leviathan. Some of the key laws include:
The first law of nature is to seek peace and pursue it.
The second law advises individuals to lay down their right to everything and agree to live with others in peace.
The third law emphasizes the importance of keeping covenants and promises.
These laws of nature are rational rules that guide individuals towards peace and self-preservation. However, Hobbes argues that to fully escape the dangers of the state of nature, individuals must come together to form a sovereign power.
Exit from the State of Nature:
Hobbes believed that the state of nature was unsustainable and that human beings, in their pursuit of self-preservation, would eventually come to the conclusion that they needed to establish a sovereign to ensure security and protect their lives.
The social contract is the means by which individuals agree to form a sovereign or absolute authority. This contract is an agreement to give up certain freedoms in exchange for peace, security, and protection from the chaos of the state of nature.
The sovereign—whether a monarch or assembly—holds absolute power to enforce laws and maintain order. The sovereign's primary role is to protect the people and preserve the state, ensuring that the cycle of conflict and war in the state of nature is replaced by peace and stability.
The sovereign has the authority to make and enforce laws, levy taxes, and maintain order, and individuals are expected to obey this authority to preserve their lives and well-being.
In Hobbes' view, once the social contract is made, individuals can no longer act according to their own desires but must comply with the authority of the sovereign to avoid the chaos of the state of nature.
Social Contract and the Creation of the Sovereign State
In post-Renaissance Europe, Hobbes was the first to introduce the idea of the social contract as a foundation for the creation of a sovereign state. This was a revolutionary idea, especially in contrast to earlier thinkers like Aristotle and Bodin, who approached the origins of the state from different philosophical and historical angles.
Historical Context of Political Theory:
Aristotle viewed the state’s origin through a teleological lens, considering the state as a natural entity that fulfills its purpose of providing a framework for human flourishing. He believed that the state naturally arises for human beings to achieve a good life.
Bodin used the historical method, focusing on understanding the development and evolution of the state in its historical context to determine its nature.
The State of Nature:
In Hobbes' view, the state of nature is a chaotic condition where individuals, driven by self-interest and desires, are in constant conflict, leading to a "war of all against all". This is a condition where life is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short".
In this environment, there is no common authority to regulate human behavior, and each person acts based on their desire for power and self-preservation.
The Social Contract:
The social contract emerges when individuals, realizing the dangers of living in the state of nature, agree to form a common authority to ensure their safety and security.
The contract is made not between individuals and the sovereign, but among the individuals themselves. Through this mutual agreement, they surrender their natural rights to a common sovereign (whether one person or a group of people) in exchange for protection and peace.
Hobbes describes this agreement in two ways:
First: Each person gives up their right to govern themselves and grants that power to the sovereign, and in return, they authorize the actions of the sovereign as if they were their own.
Second: People covenant with one another that they will grant to the sovereign the right to represent them and to act on their behalf to maintain peace and order.
Nature and Scope of Sovereign Power:
The creation of the sovereign power through the social contract establishes the Commonwealth or Civitas, a political order where a single authority governs to maintain peace and security.
Hobbes outlines several characteristics of the contract and the role of the sovereign:
No Obligation on the Sovereign: The sovereign, once established, is not bound by the terms of the contract. Unlike the subjects, the sovereign is not part of the contract and cannot be held accountable for breaching it.
Inalienable Sovereign Authority: The sovereign’s power is inalienable, indivisible, and absolute. The people cannot overthrow or replace the sovereign if they become dissatisfied with their rule. The sovereign’s actions are considered as if they were the actions of the people themselves.
No Right to Rebellion: Since the sovereign is the embodiment of the collective will, the subjects have no right to rebel against the sovereign, even if they disagree with its actions or feel wronged.
Sovereign as the Ultimate Judge: The sovereign alone has the right to determine what is beneficial for maintaining peace. They decide on what is harmful and what is beneficial for the commonwealth.
Role of the Sovereign in Society:
Hobbes believes the sovereign’s primary duty is to protect the commonwealth from internal and external threats. This protection may involve restricting freedoms, limiting expression, and engaging in war if needed.
The sovereign has the power to:
Declare war or make peace with other nations.
Appoint officials, like ministers and judges, to carry out the government’s duties.
Enforce laws, including punishing or rewarding citizens.
Censor literature or practices that may threaten the state’s stability.
Regulate religion to prevent division and ensure peace.
Hobbes’ Seven Injunctions: To ensure the stability of the sovereign state, Hobbes outlines several principles that the subjects must follow:
Patriotic Commitment to Status Quo: People must support the established government, as social changes can lead to chaos.
Resisting Demagogues: Populist leaders who encourage rebellion or disrupt the sovereign’s authority should be resisted.
Respect and Faith in Government: Citizens must trust the government and its institutions to preserve peace.
Proper Socialization and Civic Education: People must be taught the importance of law and order and respect for the state.
Discipline and Values: Children and citizens must be disciplined and educated in proper civic values.
Non-violence and Faith in the Sovereign: Citizens should not resort to personal revenge but should trust the sovereign to administer justice.
Role of Universities: Hobbes sees universities as crucial in educating citizens to uphold the values of the sovereign state.
Hobbes' Views on Liberty and Political Obligation
Hobbes on Liberty:
Definition of Liberty: Liberty is the "absence of external impediments to motion," i.e., the freedom to act as one wishes, as long as it doesn't violate sovereign laws.
Negative Freedom: Hobbes' concept of liberty aligns with the negative theory of freedom—freedom is the absence of external constraints, not the presence of power or fear.
Distinction from Power: Liberty and power are different. One is free to act unless restricted by laws imposed by the sovereign.
Silence of the Laws: Liberty exists in the absence of laws that interfere with one's actions, as long as they don't violate the sovereign's commands.
Hobbes on Political Obligation:
Obedience for Self-Preservation: Individuals obey the sovereign’s laws due to the social contract, which ensures their safety and protection from the chaos of the state of nature.
Punitive Obligation: Obedience is primarily due to the fear of punishment for disobedience, ensuring stability and order.
Moral Obligation: Some scholars (e.g., Taylor-Warrender) argue that obedience is a moral duty derived from natural laws, which are considered as divine commands.
Pragmatic Obligation: Others (e.g., Leo Strauss) suggest that obedience is driven by self-interest and the desire for self-preservation, rather than moral or religious duty.
Rational Obligation: Scholars like Michael Oakeshott propose that obedience is based on rational judgment, recognizing the importance of peace and security for survival.
Self-Preservation: Hobbes’ theory is grounded in the fundamental drive for self-preservation, which motivates individuals to form the social contract and follow the sovereign’s laws.
Hypothetical Consent: According to Pitkin, individuals consent to the social contract based on rational judgment to avoid the dangers of the state of nature and preserve their safety.
Individualism vs. Absolutism in Hobbes' Political Philosophy
Debate Over Hobbes' Position
John Dunn’s View: Hobbes’s philosophy is both liberal (individualistic) and illiberal (absolutist). While the social contract is based on individual freedom, it leads to the creation of an absolute sovereign with significant power over citizens, potentially undermining individualism.
Sabine’s View: Hobbes’s absolutism creates a mechanism for self-preservation by ensuring security, but individuals may still feel their personal desires crushed by the power of the sovereign.
Wolin’s View: Hobbes is an unadulterated individualist who supports extreme authority only to protect individuality and maintain order. The sovereign, in this sense, is a necessary institution, not a tyrannical ruler.
Hobbes's Motivation for Absolutism: Hobbes was driven by a fear of anarchy. He believed that a powerful state was essential to avoid the chaos and dangers of the state of nature, and thus justified absolute sovereignty to ensure peace.
Minimal State: Hobbes argued for an absolute but minimal state. While sovereignty is absolute, the laws should not interfere excessively in citizens’ lives, particularly in areas like economic dealings and family matters.
Conclusion
Hobbes’s political philosophy shows a tension between individualism (the freedom of individuals to act according to their self-interest) and absolutism (the need for an absolute sovereign to maintain order). While Hobbes is often associated with the rise of the absolute state, he is not considered the father of liberalism, a title typically attributed to John Locke.
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